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Revised^6 Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme
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<a name="node_chap_9"></a>
<h1 class=chapter>
<div class=chapterheading><a href="r6rs-Z-H-2.html#node_toc_node_chap_9">Chapter 9</a></div><br>
<a href="r6rs-Z-H-2.html#node_toc_node_chap_9">Primitive syntax</a></h1>
<p>After the <tt>import</tt> form within a <tt>library</tt> form or a top-level
program, the forms
that constitute the body of the library or the top-level program
depend on the libraries that are
imported. In particular, imported syntactic keywords determine 
the available syntactic abstractions and whether each form is a 
definition or expression. A few form types are
always available independent of imported libraries, however,
including constant literals, variable references, procedure calls,
and macro uses.</p>
<p>
</p>
<a name="node_sec_9.1"></a>
<h2 class=section><a href="r6rs-Z-H-2.html#node_toc_node_sec_9.1">9.1&nbsp;&nbsp;Primitive expression types</a></h2>
<p></p>
<p>
The entries in this section all describe expressions, which may occur
in the place of &lt;expression&gt; syntactic variables.  See
also section&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-14.html#node_sec_11.4">11.4</a>.</p>
<p>
</p>
<a name="node_sec_Temp_14"></a>
<h3 class=section><a href="r6rs-Z-H-2.html#node_toc_node_sec_Temp_14">Constant literals</a></h3>
<p><div style="height: -9.0pt"></div>
<p style="margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"></p>
<p>
</p>
<p></p>
<div align=left><tt>&lt;number&gt;</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;syntax&nbsp;</div>

<div align=left><tt>&lt;boolean&gt;</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;syntax&nbsp;</div>

<div align=left><tt>&lt;character&gt;</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;syntax&nbsp;</div>

<div align=left><tt>&lt;string&gt;</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;syntax&nbsp;</div>

<div align=left><tt>&lt;bytevector&gt;</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;syntax&nbsp;</div>
<a name="node_idx_292"></a><p>
An expression consisting of a representation of a number object, a
boolean, a character, a string, or a bytevector, evaluates &#8220;to
itself&#8221;.</p>
<p>
</p>

<tt>145932&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rArr;&nbsp;&nbsp;145932<br>
<tt>#t</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rArr;&nbsp;&nbsp;<tt>#t</tt><br>
&quot;abc&quot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rArr;&nbsp;&nbsp;&quot;abc&quot;<br>
#vu8(2&nbsp;24&nbsp;123)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rArr;&nbsp;#vu8(2&nbsp;24&nbsp;123)<p></tt></p>
<p>
As noted in section&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-8.html#node_sec_5.10">5.10</a>, the value of a literal
expression is immutable.
</p>
<p></p>
<p>
</p>
<a name="node_sec_Temp_15"></a>
<h3 class=section><a href="r6rs-Z-H-2.html#node_toc_node_sec_Temp_15">Variable references</a></h3>
<p><div style="height: -9.0pt"></div>
<p style="margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"></p>
<p></p>
<div align=left><tt>&lt;variable&gt;</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;syntax&nbsp;</div>
<p>
An expression consisting of a variable<a name="node_idx_294"></a>(section&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-8.html#node_sec_5.2">5.2</a>) is a variable reference if it is not a
macro use (see below).  The value of
the variable reference is the value stored in the location to which the
variable is bound.  It is a syntax violation to reference
an unbound<a name="node_idx_296"></a>variable.</p>
<p>
The following example examples assumes the base library
has been imported:
</p>

<tt>(define&nbsp;x&nbsp;28)<br>
x&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rArr;&nbsp;&nbsp;28<p></tt>
</p>
<p></p>
<p>
</p>
<a name="node_sec_Temp_16"></a>
<h3 class=section><a href="r6rs-Z-H-2.html#node_toc_node_sec_Temp_16">Procedure calls</a></h3>
<p><div style="height: -9.0pt"></div>
<p style="margin-top: 0pt; margin-bottom: 0pt"></p>
<p>
</p>
<p></p>
<div align=left><tt>(&lt;operator&gt; &lt;operand<sub>1</sub>&gt; <tt>...</tt>)</tt>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;syntax&nbsp;</div>
<p>
A procedure call consists of expressions for the procedure to be
called and the arguments to be passed to it, with enclosing
parentheses.  A form in an expression context is a procedure call if
&lt;operator&gt; is not an identifier bound as a syntactic keyword
(see section&nbsp;<a href="#node_sec_9.2">9.2</a> below).</p>
<p>
When a procedure call is evaluated, the operator and operand
expressions are evaluated (in an unspecified order) and the resulting
procedure is passed the resulting
arguments.<a name="node_idx_298"></a><a name="node_idx_300"></a></p>
<p>
The following examples assume the <tt>(rnrs base (6))</tt> library
has been imported:
</p>

<tt>(+&nbsp;3&nbsp;4)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rArr;&nbsp;&nbsp;7<br>
((if&nbsp;<tt>#f</tt>&nbsp;+&nbsp;*)&nbsp;3&nbsp;4)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&rArr;&nbsp;&nbsp;12<p></tt>
If the value of &lt;operator&gt; is not a procedure, an exception with
condition type <tt>&amp;assertion</tt> is raised.  Also, if &lt;operator&gt;
does not accept as many arguments as there are &lt;operand&gt;s, an
exception with condition type <tt>&amp;assertion</tt> is raised.</p>
<p>
</p>
<blockquote><em>Note:&nbsp;&nbsp;</em> In contrast to other dialects of Lisp, the order of
evaluation is unspecified, and the operator expression and the operand
expressions are always evaluated with the same evaluation rules.<p>
Although the order of evaluation is otherwise unspecified, the effect of
any concurrent evaluation of the operator and operand expressions is
constrained to be consistent with some sequential order of evaluation.
The order of evaluation may be chosen differently for each procedure call.
</p>
</blockquote><p>
</p>
<blockquote><em>Note:&nbsp;&nbsp;</em> In many dialects of Lisp, the form <tt>()</tt> is a legitimate expression.  In Scheme, expressions written as
list/pair forms must have at
least one subexpression, so <tt>()</tt> is not a syntactically valid
expression.
</blockquote><p>
</p>
<p></p>
<p>
</p>
<a name="node_sec_9.2"></a>
<h2 class=section><a href="r6rs-Z-H-2.html#node_toc_node_sec_9.2">9.2&nbsp;&nbsp;Macros</a></h2>
<p></p>
<p>
Libraries and top-level programs can define and use new kinds of derived expressions and
definitions called <em>syntactic abstractions</em> or
<em>macros</em>.<a name="node_idx_302"></a><a name="node_idx_304"></a>A syntactic abstraction is created by binding a keyword to a
<em>macro transformer</em> or, simply, <em>transformer</em>.
<a name="node_idx_306"></a><a name="node_idx_308"></a>The transformer determines
how a use of the macro (called a <a name="node_idx_310"></a><em>macro use</em>)
is transcribed into a more primitive form.</p>
<p>
Most macro uses have the form:
</p>

<tt>(&lt;keyword&gt;&nbsp;&lt;datum&gt;&nbsp;<tt>...</tt>)<p></tt>where &lt;keyword&gt; is an identifier that uniquely determines the
kind of form.  This identifier is called the <em>syntactic
keyword</em><a name="node_idx_312"></a>, or simply <em>keyword</em><a name="node_idx_314"></a>, of the macro<a name="node_idx_316"></a>.
The number of &lt;datum&gt;s and the syntax
of each depends on the syntactic abstraction.</p>
<p>
Macro uses can also take the form of improper lists, singleton
identifiers, or <tt>set!</tt> forms, where the second subform of the
<tt>set!</tt> is the keyword (see section&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-14.html#node_sec_11.19">11.19</a>)
library section&nbsp;on &#8220;<tt>make-variable-transformer</tt>&#8221;):
</p>

<tt>(&lt;keyword&gt;&nbsp;&lt;datum&gt;&nbsp;<tt>...</tt>&nbsp;.&nbsp;&lt;datum&gt;)<br>
&lt;keyword&gt;<br>
(set!&nbsp;&lt;keyword&gt;&nbsp;&lt;datum&gt;)<p></tt></p>
<p>
The <tt>define-syntax</tt>, <tt>let-syntax</tt> and <tt>letrec-syntax</tt>
forms, described in sections&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-14.html#node_sec_11.2.2">11.2.2</a> and <a href="r6rs-Z-H-14.html#node_sec_11.18">11.18</a>,
create bindings for keywords, associate them with macro transformers,
and control the scope within which they are visible.</p>
<p>
The <tt>syntax-rules</tt> and <tt>identifier-syntax</tt> forms, described in
section&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-14.html#node_sec_11.19">11.19</a>, create transformers via a pattern
language.  Moreover, the <tt>syntax-case</tt> form, described in library
chapter&nbsp;on &#8220;<tt>syntax-case</tt>&#8221;, 
allows creating transformers via arbitrary Scheme code.</p>
<p>
Keywords occupy the same name space as variables.
That is, within the same
scope, an identifier can be bound as a variable or keyword, or neither, but
not both, and local bindings of either kind may shadow other bindings of
either kind.</p>
<p>
Macros defined using <tt>syntax-rules</tt> and <tt>identifier-syntax</tt>
are &#8220;hygienic&#8221; and &#8220;referentially transparent&#8221; and thus preserve
Scheme&#8217;s lexical scoping&nbsp;[<a href="r6rs-Z-H-21.html#node_bib_16">16</a>,&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-21.html#node_bib_15">15</a>,&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-21.html#node_bib_2">2</a>,&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-21.html#node_bib_6">6</a>,&nbsp;<a href="r6rs-Z-H-21.html#node_bib_9">9</a>]:
<a name="node_idx_318"></a><a name="node_idx_320"></a></p>
<p>
</p>
<ul>
<li><p>If a macro transformer inserts a binding for an identifier
(variable or keyword) not appearing in the macro use, the identifier is in effect renamed
throughout its scope to avoid conflicts with other identifiers.</p>
<p>
</p>
<li><p>If a macro transformer inserts a free reference to an
identifier, the reference refers to the binding that was visible
where the transformer was specified, regardless of any local
bindings that may surround the use of the macro.
</p>
</ul><p></p>
<p>
Macros defined using the <tt>syntax-case</tt> facility are also
hygienic unless <tt>datum-&gt;syntax</tt>
(see library section&nbsp;on &#8220;Syntax-object and datum conversions&#8221;) is used.</p>
<p>
 </p>
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